III
LANGUAGE & LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
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Introduction to Course
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Current Theories & Hypotheses
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Motivation & Anxiety in Language Learners
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Analyzing Students' Spelling & Grammar
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Mini-Lesson: Listening & Speaking Skills
Introduction to Course
This course surveyed the conceptual underpinnings of language as well as practical application of pedagogy of language development strategies. Covering language systems with emphasis on the specific sociolinguistic challenges faced by students learning English language. Importantly, we studied and analyzed socio-cultural and political factors that impact our students as they acquire English literacy.
Starting with comparing the current theories and hypotheses of language acquisition and the implications for second language learners to exploring how first language and culture impacts subsequent languages, course material considered the confusion produced by the dialectical and colloquial meanings of English words. We learned to intentionally design content-embedded and cognitively demanding lessons supported by visual syntax and manipulatives. Additionally, the course covered the importance of student understanding of morphology to support language acquisition.
Importantly, we learned to distinguish between interpersonal communicative skills and cognitive academic language proficiency and the time differential involved in the learning process. The history of bilingual education is steeped in misunderstanding and misaligned expectations for student development of fluency. A challenge is that motivation is key to student success but anxiety is common within situations based in unfamiliar language and impossible communication. Also, grammar and spelling pose difficulty for students learning the English language and teachers can consider writing proficiency in terms of cause and effect rather than judging right or wrong.
Instruction design for this course considers many perspectives including immigrant and multilingual as well as the scaffolding to best meet students where they are. This whole student approach to strategic English language instruction has infiltrated my teaching every week and has deepened my capacity to consider numerous variables while planning and implementing instruction.
Current Theories & Hypotheses of Language Acquisition
with Implications for Multilingual Learners
Affective Filter Hypothesis
IMPLICATION
The theory that the emotional state of the student can help or hinder the student's language acquisition which was originated by Stephen Krashen, an expert in linguistics.
EXAMPLE
Classrooms that make the student feel welcome where first language and culture is honored will have a positive effect on the student's ability to learn.
Motivation & Anxiety in Language Learners
Motivation and anxiety are mental states which are co-present in learners. It may be true that most language teachers find that motivation is the most essential factor in learning but I would guess that it is not a reach to suggest that all teachers, across the curriculum subjects find that motivation is essential to student learning. Moreover, it is important to distinguish extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation as factors in the learning process. Since language reflects the mind of the student and their ability to interpret, analyze, and express, motivation in learning language must be valued as a necessary student attribute. Where motivation does not exist, it must be realized and cultivated for a student to learn and especially for a student learning language.
Motivation is a key factor to learning any and all subject matter. Although it is suggested that intrinsic motivation aids learning my personal would go further to say that motivation is necessary to learning. When we consider the learner perspective together with the learning process and language, it is clear that differentiation and individualization are also necessary. For me, the learning experience created through meeting the student where they are and addressing the whole student as a complex entity, is the result of differentiation. I think this approach is best realized by teaching the entire class with an expectation that all students will need different tools to support them. Also, that all tools for support should be made available to all students to choose from. By addressing the students’ ability to participate in their own learning by having a voice in their learning path can simultaneously tap into their intrinsic motivation and scaffold where needed to support the transfer of learning.
Intrinsic motivation will create heightened determinism and help the student become more resilient as they experience the challenges of language acquisition. Distinguished from extrinsic motivation which is provided by something outside of the student such as a reward or praise, intrinsic motivation is powered by the students sense of control and autonomy. For example, a good grade in English Language Development class may motivate a student to complete their classwork but an interest in reading a book in English, or going to an American college to study law are more powerful motivating factors because they fulfill the student’s goal in life. Where learning and be more relevant and less abstract for the student, the work they do in school is meaningful and empowering.
Anxiety is going to be present where there is vulnerability and learning something new. Anxiety is an emotional state which can be balanced by a feeling created by a learning environment which is safe and intended to promote the risk taking that is necessary to create the room for actual growth. Anxiety can be paralyzing. It is emotional response that stops a student from speaking when the language is new and they know their pronunciation is poor. Like many subjects, the culture of the classroom must valorize vulnerability, the power of yet and possibility, and cultivate the desire to suck at something new in the students. My own experience with anxiety is that it can be negative and silencing. When I have studied French, Spanish, and Sanskrit, anxiety arises because I hear my mid-western accent. I can pinpoint the moments where I had to stop any sense of humiliation by really valuing the growth opportunity, I was experience. It is heroic to fail and to get up and try again. Moreover, it is the intrinsic motivation that allows students to engage in the learning process at this level of commitment. All said, it is on the educators to create a climate for learning where risk-taking is normal and growth rather than perfection is encouraged.
Analyzing Students' Spelling & Grammar
Given the notion that grammar poses difficulty for students learning the English language, one may increase analytical awareness by considering student writing proficiency in terms of cause and effect rather than right and wrong. Also, relaying the analysis of cause and effect to the student supports a culture of feedback rather than judgement which is critical to the metacognitive plasticity required for language acquisition. The role of the students’ native language will play a part in their English grammar and identifying this as a cause for the student apparent choice in writing will support the students understanding by consciously differentiating their native language and English language while making comparisons that give rise to understanding.
The two articles provided share a similar interest in the inaccuracies found in the writing of students studying English language. That said, each author’s approach to analysis is distinguished in their emphasis on spelling or grammar, respectively. The general approach of Tompkins, Abraham, & Pritchard (1999) is rooted in categorization by developmental stages through comparing spelling habits in the journal writing native speakers of several languages including English. After analyzing difference in spelling development of English language Learners who speak Spanish, Hmong, Lao, and Khmer as their native language, difference in spelling development of English natives and English Language Learners in the same grade, and difference between students based on the socioeconomic level of their schools. Their writing samples are reproductions of the third and fourth graders hand written work and their analysis presents as thorough. This study concluded that patterns in spelling errors were evident in the grade level but not necessarily attributable to the first language and that the more affluent school scored higher.
As far a spelling goes, this article is useful in that it provides what one might expect: that writing ability is informed by the developmental age of the student and that affluent school score higher. Where it falls short, for me, is that it does not inform my practice because it does not let me know tactics for supporting students with various native language backgrounds or consider the expressive elements involving content and form which make writing the important literacy skill that it is.
The other article written by Mary J Schleppregrell (2003) considers the different syntactic demands of writing genres and how students respond to these requirements. This approach is more useful, for me, because it is explicitly connected to the standards which inform my instruction and specifically considers the first language of the student learning the English language. The article charts genres that are basically subcategories referred to as “pathways” of the narrative and exposition modes, producing three of each. I view this approach as being akin to a cause and effect analysis which can be constructive to a culture of feedback. Not only is the approach useful to the teacher in terms of instructional design but it is also useful for the student to understand the underpinnings of their writing decisions. I have elected to analyze grammar because the idea that grammar is a set of choices rather than a set of rules can be liberating and encouraging for the student.
Further, I will follow Schleppregrell’s approach to analyze grammar in the writing of four students. The student writing samples are from an assignment in a level one English Language Development class. All students are in the tenth grade, classified as long-term language learners, Title I, born in the U.S. with Spanish as their first and home language.
All four writing samples are from an in-class assignment. Earlier we learned about the formal conventions of writing an email with a greeting, inquiry, and closing by watching a video and composing a casual email to a friend in both Spanish and English. Then we viewed the English language animated film Coco (2014) and watched a Spanish language video about the Latino response to Coco which featured interviews with young adults about their perspective on the film and the representation of Mexican culture. This prepared the students for the assignment to compose an email to a relative which is used as the writing sample here. Although all four students are in the tenth grade, one of them is one year older and this will be pointed out again in the analysis of the writing samples. Students were additionally exposed to the English language official Disney Coco website and videos which described the film.
The writing sample is a narrative writing assignment which provides a recount of their personal experience and retelling of events in a story which serves as the first step toward narrative writing. This recount is a friendly letter and response to literature or in this case, a film. The standards suggest that action and saying verbs will report events including being and having which are verbs we have covered in class. Adjectives to introduce description and evaluation as well as thinking/feeling verbs will report personal evaluation. Also, noun phrases expanded with adjectives and prepositional phrases.
In the first writing sample, the thing that stood out the most to me was the use of run on sentences. That said, there is a short question with a proper mark. Also, the very limited description with no mention of visual elements or color which is common for describing something to another human. Next, the run on sentences created by phrases strung together with commas. For example: “I hope this is well, I am writing this letter to tell you to watch a very nice movie, it's called coco, it's about Miguel, a 12- year- old boy in a typical Mexican town called Santa Cecilia, who wants to be a musician.” The modifiers “very,” “typical,” “really,” and “big” lack the emotion and feeling one might expect in response to a Disney movie about day of the dead. The verbs include simple thinking/feeling, being/having, and action including “hope,” “am,” and tell.” “Following this, I am motivated to teach about color words and connectors that help to establish discrete sentences. Also, more complex verb forms that end in -ed or -ing are needed.
The second sample is oddly similar in the way that phrases create a long train of ideas. For example: “The movie starts talking about the day of the dead, the child likes music but his other family does not, the boy Miguel wanted to meet his grandfather so he made a trip to the world of the dead, where he faces different things, the final Miguel returns to his family and they accept the music.” Again, this presents an opportunity to do some sentence chunking to parse the phrases into discrete sentences expressing ideas. The student needs understanding around flow, beginning and ending sentences. I need to present connector to express opinion, sequence, emphasis, cause and effect. I did not really notice this to the extent that I see it now, looking through the lens of the purpose and structure of the narrative form including the language features which are conventional.
Also, in the third sample, we find a run on sentence: “the animation is very nice and it is entertaining, if you haven't watched we could watched together when we see each other i miss you so much, I hope you answer me soon and have a good day I love you very much.” Something distinct in this sample is the use of contractions. The student did well in that unit of Rosetta Stone and it is visible here in her writing. She does use the question mark for short inquiries like we saw in the first sample. The use of verb tense also stands out in this sample because it is cumbersome as she moved between past, present and future when she says “i'm so happy to tell you about a movie i'm watching in my English class it's call coco, have you watched? the animation is very nice and it is entertaining, if you haven't watched we could watched together when we see each other.” This writer is the strongest student in the class. She has the most confidence around speaking in class in both English and Spanish.
Lastly, the fourth sample stands out as more expressive than the others. There is a greater complexity to the ideas and emotions being conveyed. For example: “Aunt Carla, would you leave your dream because your family does not accept that?” He also utilizes parentheticals to go more in depth to describe. I can see that I need to show him some additional strategies for description as well as various ways to frame a sentence and connect sentences in a paragraph. This student is one year older and I think the more sophisticated inquiry, and emotional component goes to his relative maturity.
Schleppegrell claims that “functional linguistics research helps us understand the linguistic challenges of these genres and enables us to incorporate the notion of development in writing.” (2003, 15). By using this lens to analyze the student’s writing, I was able to identify those sites for development as places to build on what the student is already doing. This allows the student to take the next step in their approach without being told they are wrong. Further, “ELL writing can be analyzed from this perspective to identify the linguistic resources students are using in their writing and the resources they still need to develop.” Although I did not see adjectives, I can guess that when I do they might appear in a sequence more consistent with the students first language of Spanish which would be placed after the noun being modified rather than in front of it as English syntax would suggest. The point is that I can look and identify the cause and effect of what the student is producing. As for the teacher, I can see that I need to provide instruction around conjunctions and transitions as well as verb tense and adjectives. “An approach based on functional linguistics sees language as a set of choices and helps students think about the different choices they can make in their writing” and this strategy is empowering for the student.
Student Writing Samples
Assignment: Reflect on the film we viewed in class, Coco (2017), and write an email to your aunt or uncle telling them about the story and imagery. Write in English, using the format for emails we have learned.
1
Dear Aunt Pancha:
Hello Aunt! How is it going? I hope this is well, I am writing this letter to tell you to watch a very nice movie, it's called coco, its about Miguel, a 12- year- old boy in a typical Mexican town called Santa Cecilia, who wants to be a musician. But Miguel is a member of a family of shoemakers who hates music because of something that happened to them in the past. I really liked the movie, if you like it one day we can see it together I am looking forward to your response.
Greets my uncle and my cousins. I say goodbye with a big hug.
Sincerely: your niece Dee
2
Hello good morning, I am writing you this email to tell you that I have seen Coco's movie, I really liked the movie because of its characters and its dialogues. The movie starts talking about the day of the dead, the child likes music but his other family does not, the boy Miguel wanted to meet his grandfather so he made a trip to the world of the dead, where he faces different things, the final Miguel returns to his family and they accept the music.
I would like you to give me your opinion on the movie.
It was great to have told you about this movie, I hope you can also see it and tell me what you liked about it, have a good day, greetings
Lee
3
hi Victoria,
Good morning how are you? I hope you are fine, i'm so happy to tell you about a movie i'm watching in my English class it's call coco, have you watched? the animation is very nice and it is entertaining, if you haven't watched we could watched together when we see each other i miss you so much, I hope you answer me soon and have a good day I love you very much.
with love, your friend Chandra
4
Hello Aunt Carla I hope and you are very well I send you this letter to tell you about the story
(movie) that I just saw, it is about a child whose passion is playing the guitar (being a musician) but his family is against day he ignored and took the guitar of a deceased and at the time of playing the guitar he changed into one of them, and only had a certain time to return to everyday life but before he wanted to fulfill his dream and sing, play guitar with his family. Aunt Carla, would you leave your dream because your family does not accept that?
Well aunt I hope and you can see that story, I send you many greetings, hug you and have a great time in these days of October.
Ian
Sources
Tompkins, Gail E.; Abramson, Shareen & Pritchard, Robert H. (Spring 1999). “A Multilingual Perspective on Spelling Development in Third
and Fourth Grades,” Mutlicutural Education, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, Bethesda, MD.
Schleppregrell, M. (2003). Grammar for Writing: Academic language and the ELD Standards. Santa Barbara, CA: University of California
Linguistic Minority Research Institute, pp. 15-26.
Mini-Lesson: Strength & Weakness in Listening & Speaking
This lesson is designed for English Language Development, level 1, (ELD I) class comprised of 9th and 10th grade high school students. A few of the students are also in my Introduction to Art class which is for students of all four high school year levels. Working with students in another content subject area has provided me with greater insights into their usage, interpretation, and comprehension of English language beyond the confines of our English subject class. I have gleaned insight into aspects I may gloss over in ELD class and also how my art class be better presented to meet the needs of students learning English language that are in the class.
One day when I had students for both ELD and art class, I decided to focus my attention on the strengths and weaknesses of their listening and speaking skills that are necessary in my classroom. Utilizing Brown’s micro-skills for listening, speaking, reading, and writing, I was able to label some of the behavior which I observed (2001). The following represents details that I discovered through this process.
Listening
Strengths. Students demonstrated good ability to retain chunks of language in short-term memory in both English and art class (Brown, 2001). In English, as a class we read an interactive short story about a young girl who moved from Cuba to the state of Georgia. The story is interactive because it is illustrated with integrated audio clips of each paragraph read dramatically. In the story the girl described the difference between her past home and her new home through their representative trees: the mango tree and the magnolia tree. The father drew an analogy to grafting trees which the girl understood as meaning she was both mango and magnolia as an American. Following our group reading of the story, students worked independently on sentences from the text with blanks and vocabulary word banks as well as recording some passages as they aloud from the text. Most of the students did well with both selecting vocabulary words and speaking with inflection similar to how the story was heard. This suggests to me that they were able to retain what they had heard from the story presented as an illustrated audiobook. Similarly, in art class, following a short video about an artist, students were able to write simple sentences but sentences that reflected the content from the video none the less. In both classes, I assessed listening retention as a strength in most of the students.
From this same example, I can also see evidence of the student’s ability to predict outcomes, infer links and connections between events and ideas described in the interactive short story as well as the artist video including detecting relations such as main idea and supporting idea (Brown, 2001). Students were able to make connections between the idea of grafting trees as descriptive of the immigrant experience as received by listening to the story. Also, in art class, after listening to the video presentation, students did ask questions about the artist we studied. They noted her rules for art class were radical for a nun and could see how she would move from Los Angeles to New York when she stopped being a nun.
Weaknesses. Students were challenged to recognize grammatical word classes such as nouns and verbs as well as systems like agreement or pluralization (Brown, 2001). When I invited students to share words they noted which they did not understand, I was surprised to see it was a form of a word they already knew but did not understand it when listening. A good example of this is the “ing” form of many words. I did not anticipate this but can recognize it as a teaching opportunity. I need to teach more about words including morphology like free, bound, prefix, suffix, and derivational morphemes that can change parts of speech like from non to verb. This was a real eye opener for me.
This observation caused me to also consider that the students may well be challenged to fully recognize the communicative utterances, according to situations, participants, and goals (Brown, 2001). If students are not hearing in such a way to understand word forms then they are not going to understand the intention of the communication. It is already difficult to understand things like wo the actor might be in a sentence so when students confuse the verb with a noun when listening, effective communication is unlikely. Miscommunication is guaranteed. Although students did well with the vocabulary words, and inflection, students could use some sentence chunking with the short story to clarify the relationship between words and their forms such as grow and growing in addition to grow and grows.
Speaking
Strengths. Students demonstrate good ability to produce chunks of language of different lengths (Brown, 2001). I noted that when students speak among themselves that they use longer phrases or string phrases together in a way that adds texture to their speech pattern. When students speak directly to me, their speech is more concise, uses the fewest words possible to convey the idea. This is another reason to encourage student dialog, peer to peer discourse in class. I simultaneously need to model speech patterns and sometimes soften my speaking so that students can relate to my communication. My ears do come alive when I can hear students speaking to each other because they unfold more completely and expressively.
This same example may indicate that the students are able to use appropriate registers and conventions in conversations as demonstrated in how they speak to their peers and how they are more formal with me (Brown, 2001).
Weaknesses. Similarly to the challenges in listening, students are challenged to use grammatical word classes, systems, patterns, word order, and rules in their speech (Brown, 2001). A good example is placing a modifier such as an adjective after the noun it modifies instead of in front of it. This presents as a calcification from the first language, Spanish. Imagine grass green instead of green grass. The meaning is understood and it does not impact performance on most assessments with the exception of writing and speaking without supports.
Another challenge is to use facial features and body language along with verbal language to convey meaning (Brown, 2001). I feel this within myself when speaking Spanish because the endeavor is mechanical and not emotional or natural to me. Students are still translating in their head and thinking through their choices I a manner that preempts even simple hand gestures or smiles when speaking English language.
THE MINI-LESSON
1. Microskill & Standards
Microskill. Based on my observations of my student’s strengths and weaknesses in listening and speaking microskills, I see instruction around developing the microskill expressed in listening as the ability to recognize grammatical word classes (e.g., nouns and verbs), systems (e.g., tense, agreement, and pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms (Brown 2001). Which is complemented by the microskill expressed in speaking as the ability to utilize grammatical word classes (e.g., nouns and verbs), systems (e.g., tense, agreements, and pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms (Brown, 2001). I will provide students a learning experience to learn morphology by unpacking sentences to discover verb forms, endings, and pronouns based on textbook vocabulary and short story we read in class.
Further, students understanding of morphology is a better predictor of reading comprehension than their vocabulary level and this relationship has been found to be the same for Spanish-speaking ELLs as for native English speakers in an urban setting (Kieffer & Lesaux, 2007). Moreover, “as with the relationship between reading and vocabulary development, the relationship between vocabulary and morphology appears to be reciprocal” (2007, p. 12). Importantly I am inspired by the idea that “teaching morphology may well work together with other types of context-rich and thoughtful vocabulary instruction to improve students reading and language outcomes.”
We learned from Cummins (1984) and Baker (2006) that context-rich instruction demands context to be embedded for cognitively demanding activity and this discovery of morphology as a method to enrich learning experience design is an approach supported by research to improve outcomes for my students.
Common Core State Standards, California English Language Development Standards.
CCSS.ELD.9-10.1.I.B.5,8. Part I: Interacting in meaningful ways. B. Interpretative. 5. Listening actively to spoken English in a range of social and academic contexts. 8. Analyzing how writers and speakers use vocabulary and other language resources for specific purposes depending on modality, text type, purpose, audience, topic, and content area.
CCSS.ELD.9-10.1.I.C.12. Part I: Interacting in meaningful ways. C. Productive. 12. Selecting and applying varied and precise vocabulary and other language resources to effectively convey ideas.
CCSS.ELD.9-10.1.II. A.1. Part II: Learning about how English works. A. Structuring cohesive texts. 1. Understanding text structure.
CCSS.ELD.9-10.1.II. B.3. Part II: Learning about how English works. B. Expanding and enriching ideas. 3. Using verbs and verb phrases.
2. Materials
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Schoology Learning Management System, assessment with audio record/play feature
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Schoology page with pronoun and verb chart (I, he, she, we, they, them, it and grow, leave, miss, wait, and smile)
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Edge Textbook, Student Edition, interactive short story on page 32-40 with audio
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Pencil and paper for drawing word webs and or digital annotation tools for pdf
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Annotation tools in Zoom for teacher and students
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Zoom video meeting
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Computer and Internet
3. Activities Sequence
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Agenda
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Learning Targets
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Scaffolding/Pre-assessment/Anticipation Guide: Group discussion around sentence blanks with word bank for multiple choice decision making. Students speak out to suggest best choice as a group activity to share understanding. Sentences, pronouns, and verbs are all from the vocabulary for the short story we read last week. Students actively listen.
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We reflect on the close reading we did last class as we open the text today.
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As a class, we listen to the short story in the textbook once and note the illustrations before focusing on specific vocabulary and morphology.
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Mini-lecture with visual chart of pronouns and verb forms/word bank for class based on short story in textbook. Describe morphology in terms of words and their various forms including plural and tense. Students actively listen and note what they hear in a word web graphic organizer modeled by the teacher, done as a group, and then three created independently.
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Introduction to summative assessment before students are release to do independent work to complete the summative assessment on schoology, Rosetta Stone immersion, and Daily Learning Log.
4. Scaffold Activity
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Agenda is provided written in English and Spanish as well as verbally in English.
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Scaffolding/Pre-assessment: Group discussion around sentence blanks with word bank for multiple choice decision making. Students speak out to suggest best choice as a group activity to share understanding.
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Scaffolding/Anticipation Guide: the pre-assessment activity serves as a tool to introduce to students the mini-lecture for the day by connecting the last lesson with the next.
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Graphic organizer in the form of a word web to map the relationship between related words/ form of verbs and related pronouns (subject predicate relationships) Used to support mini-lecture. The teacher creates one for the word grow. Next, as a group we create one web for the word leave. Next, students work independently to create word webs for miss, wait, and smile by listening to the teacher and understanding the mini-lecture.
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Pre-reading strategies were utilized to introduce key vocabulary words, video about Cuba in English language with captions, and video about Cuba youth culture and skateboarding in Spanish language with captions to enrich context for understanding the story about Cuba and Georgia.
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Close reading of the short story last week: three reads, once slow, nest pausing for each vocabulary word and new words, and the last pass for a fluid read. Followed with an analysis of the illustrations and their relationship to the imagery of the story about Cuba, Georgia, mango trees, magnolia trees, grafting, and growing together.
5. Assessment
The article on assessment of ELLs articulated the many purposes that assessment may serve. With a mind to “help students move forward” I have included pre-assessment, formative assessment, and a check for understanding at the close of the lesson. The article suggested Sharing Out which I have included as a pre-assessment activity to begin class to help them check prior knowledge as well as practice for the summative assessment; Idea Webs which I refer to as Word Webs, are something we already know how to do, and I have included as an informal or formative assessment; also, a more summative measure of what the students have learned in the lesson which is available for grading and presented at the end of class as an exit ticket.
Pre-Assessment/Scaffolding. At the top of the lesson as a teacher led group, we will look at four sentences which as us to select the appropriate form of the verb to fill in the blank in the sentence. The teacher will read the sentence and the word bank options aloud then invite the class to unmute to provide the best choice to fill in the blank. The word being tested will be grow. The four sentences will require either grow, grows, growing, grown, grew, and will inquire about whether or not “growed” is ever useful. The pronouns will be identified as signs to guide the form. Images from the short story will be used to support the text questions.
Formative Assessment/Scaffolding. During the lesson, students create word webs to represent related words (e.g., grow, grows, growing, grown, grew) covered in the lesson. First, the teacher models grow. Next, the students as a group tell the teacher how to do the same for leave. Then, the students draw independently to create individual word webs for miss, wait, and smile.
Summative Assessment/Exit Ticket. At the close of class, students will work independently by listening to a set of four sentences which are structured identically to the pre-assessment. Students will be asked to listen to a recorded audio of a sentence and respond by selecting the best choice to represent the verb and pronoun used in the sentence. These sentences will emulate the sentences from the lesson where both the pronoun and the verb form required alignment. Based on the chart covered in class, students will demonstrate understanding of verbs and pronouns. The verbs grow, leave, miss, wait, and smile will be covered.
Sources
Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (4th Edition). Clevedon, England, Buffalo,
N.Y.: Multilingual Matters
Brown (2001). “Microskills for Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing,” Teachscape website. Retrieved from
Common Core State Standards, California English Language Development Standards (2012).
Cummins, Jim. BICS & CALP http://www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/bicscalp.html
Kieffer, M.J. & Lesaux, N.K. (2007). Breaking words down to build meaning: Vocabulary, morphology, and
reading comprehension in the urban classroom. The Reading Teacher, 61, 134-144. Reprinted in Graves,
M.F. (ed.) (2009), Essential readings in vocabulary instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading
Associations. Available at www.reading.org, DO.I: 10.1598/RT.61.2.3
“Scaffolding Ideas” (2011), Technology Education website, Miami Dade County Public Schools, Miami, FL.
Retrieved from http://teched.dadeschools.net/